The twentieth century was very good to the United States of America. At the beginning of that century， life was hard and short. Life expectancywas only 47 years for whites and a shockingly low 33 years for blacks and other minorities. Those people who survived infancy faced substantial risk of early death from tuberculosis， influenza， pneumonia， or gastritis. Measles，syphilis， whooping cough， malaria， typhoid， and smallpox were all lifethreateningdiseases at the turn of the last century. Work was a lot harder back then， too. In 1900， one-third of all U.S. familieslived on farms， where the workday began before sunrise and lasted all day. Those who lived in the cities typically worked 60 hours a week for wages of only 22 cents an hour. Hours were long， jobs were physically demanding， and workplaces were often dirty and unsafe.People didn’t have much to show for all that work. By today’s standards nearly everyone was poor back then. The average income per person was less than $4，000 per year (in today’s dollars). Very few people had telephones and even fewer had cars. There were no television sets， no home freezers， no microwaves，no dishwashers or central air-conditioning， and no computers. Eve indoor plumbing was a luxury. Only a small elite went to college; an eighthgrade education was the norm.
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