Preface vii
Fore word ix
Chapter 1 Stress Corrosion Cracking Case Study of 40CrNiMo Drill Pipe Bit in Gas Field 1
1.1 Experimental results and analysis 2
1.2 Observation and Analysis of Microscopic Morphology 4
1.3 Conclusion 12
Chapter 2 Stress corrosion cracking mechanism of 40CrNiMo steel in simulated drilling fluid environment 13
2.1 Test Method 14
2.2 Test results and discussion 15
2.3 Conclusion 26
Chapter 3 Stress corrosion failure cases of P110 pipeline for CO2-driven Oil Recovery 27
3.1 Test results and analysis 28
3.2 Stress Analysis of Pipeline 37
3.3 Cause Analysis of Oil Pipe Cracking 38
3.4 Conclusion 40
Chapter 4 Stress Corrosion Cracking Mechanism of P110 Tubing in Simulated Fluid of Oil Well Annulus 41
4.1 Test Method 42
4.2 Test results and analysis 44
4.3 Analysis of the failure mechanism for tubing stress corrosion 51
4.4 Conclusion 54
Chapter 5 Stress Corrosion Cracking Case Studies of N80 Oil Casing under High CO2 Pressure 55
5.1 Test results and analysis 56
5.2 Stress Analysis of Pipeline 60
5.3 Cause Analysis of Oil Pipe Cracking 61
5.4 Conclusion 62
Chapter 6 Stress Corrosion Cracking mechanism of N80 Pipe Steel under high CO2 pressure 65
6.1 Experimental methods 65
6.2 Test results and analysis 66
6.3 Conclusion 77
Chapter 7 Stress Corrosion Failure Analysis of Stainless Steel and 35CrMo Steel for Oil Tree 79
7.1 Experimental results and analysis 80
7.2 Analysis of Cracking Reasons of Oil Production Tree Material 86
7.3 Conclusion 86
Chapter 8 Stress Corrosion Cracking Mechanism of 00Cr13Ni5Mo Oil Bundle Unit 89
8.1 Experimental Method 90
8.2 Test results and analysis 92
8.3 Discussion 106
8.4 Conclusion 108
Chapter 9 Stress Corrosion Cracking Process of 2205 Duplex Stainless Steel in the Simulated Environment of Oil and Gas Field 109
9.1 Experimental Method 110
9.2 Test results and analysis 111
9.3 Discussion 120
9.4 Conclusion 122
Chapter 10 Stress Corrosion Cracking Case Study of Pipeline Steel in Typical Soil Environment 125
10.1 Experimental methods 126
10.2 Test results and analysis 130
10.3 Discussion 141
10.4 Conclusion 143
Chapter 11 Stress Corrosion Cracking Mechanism of X70 in Acid Soil Environment 145
11.1 Test method 146
11.2 Test results and analysis 149
11.3 Discussion 166
11.4 Conclusion 168
Chapter 12 Stress Corrosion Cracking Case Study of Pipeline Steel in Typical Soil Environment 171
12.1 Experimental methods 171
12.2 Test results and analysis 172
12.3 Discussion 185
12.4 Conclusion 187
Chapter 13 Stress Corrosion Cracking Case Study of Distillation Intake Pipe Welding Seam in Atmospheric-Vacuum Distillation Unit 189
13.1 Test results and analysis 190
13.2 Analysis of corrosion mechanism 199
13.3 Conclusion 200
Chapter 14 Stress Corrosion Cracking Process of Distillation Intake Pipe Welding Seam in Atmospheric-Vacuum Distillation Unit 201
14.1 Experimental method 202
14.2 Experimental results and analysis 202
14.3 Analysis and discussion 211
14.4 Conclusion 212
Chapter 15 Stress Corrosion Cracking Case Study of Catalytic Cracking Units 213
15.1 Experimental analysis of corrosion cracking failure of catalytic cracking unit 214
15.2 Analysis of the Causes of Stress Corrosion Cracking 219
15.3 Conclusion 224
Chapter 16 Stress Corrosion Cracking Mechanism of Fluid Catalytic Cracking Unit 225
16.1 Experimental method 225
16.2 Experimental results and analysis 226
16.3 Analysis and discussion 237
16.4 Conclusion 241
Chapter 17 Stress Corrosion Cracking Case Study of Cold High-Pressure Separator in Hydrocracking Unit 243
17.1 D405 cold and high-pressure separator equipment 244
17.2 Operating Environment of D405 Equipment 246
17.3 Conclusion 251
Chapter 18 Stress Corrosion Cracking Mechanism of 16Mn Steel in Wet H2S Environment 253
18.1 Experimental methods 254
18.2 Experimental results and analysis 254
18.3 Analysis of stress corrosion cracking mechanism 270
18.4 Conclusion 272
Chapter 19 Hydrogen Diffusion and Influencing Factors in Stress Corrosion Cracking of 16Mn Steel in Wet H2S Environment 275
19.1 Experimental methods 275
19.2 Experimental results 276
19.3 Analysis and discussion 281
19.4 Conclusion 283
Chapter 20 Crack Growth Model for Stress Corrosion Cracking of 16Mn steel in Wet H2S Environment 285
20.1 Basic Process of Wet H2S Cracking 286
20.2 Crack Propagation Model for Wet H2S Cracking 287
20.3 Application of crack growth model for wet H2S cracking 290
20.4 Conclusion 297
Chapter 21 Stress Corrosion Cracking Case Study of Glycine Production Plant 299
21.1 Experimental results and analysis 300
21.2 Analysis of Corrosion Failure Mechanism 306
21.3 Conclusion 308
Chapter 22 Stress Corrosion Cracking Mechanism of Glycine Production Plant 309
22.1 Experimental methods 310
22.2 Test results and analysis 311
22.3 Stress Corrosion Mechanisms of 304L Stainless Steel in Glycine Synthesis Medium 319
22.4 Conclusion 321
Afterword 323
Index 325
內容試閱：
Stress Corrosion Cracking SCC is the brittle cracking of metal under the combined influence of stress and a corrosive medium in specific environments.Throughout the history of modern industrial development, there have been a plethora of cases involving sudden and catastrophic accidents caused by stress corrosion. In the 1800s, the alkali brittle cracking of British boilers first incited research into the mechanics and forms of stress corrosion. In 1925, Moore performed the first systematic analysis of stress corrosion in the laboratory, discovering that the seasonal cracking of brass was caused primarily by intergranular stress corrosion in the presence of ammonia. Brown later introduced fracture mechanics theory to the field of material corrosion, laying the foundation for mechanical studies of stress corrosion in the 1960s. In 1967, Parkins, the main founder of stress corrosion research and theory, then combined these mechanics with electrochemical measurement methods to establish the core methods for study of the mechanisms of stress corrosion. This allowed for numerous studies to be conducted on the forms and systems of environment-sensitive cracking under the influence of various states of stress and in various media, contributing greatly to modern stress corrosion theory.
During this period, the incidence of stress corrosion faults had been expanding both in volume and scope; affected industries included petroleum mining, chemical and marine engineering, and nuclear energy. As such, stress corrosion research developed radically, gradually adopting one of the most distinguished research areas within the field of material corrosion and protection. More recently, scientific understanding of mechanical-chemical behavior and the mechanisms of SCC at the micro and nano-scales has seen some development. It has also been recognized that stress corrosion also occurs in non-metallic materials; environmental cracking in polymer materials has the same characteristics and rules as stress corrosion in metals.
SCC is best characterized as the cracking of metal placed under tensile stress for a period of time, within a specific corrosive medium. From the perspective of fracture mechanics, it takes a certain amount of time for the crack to initiate, expand, and finally reach critical stress, resulting in an unstable fracture. The minimum stress causing SCC is far less than the strength, b, of the material, and there may be no apparent macro-plastic deformation before fracture.
Stress corrosion mechanisms can be divided into two types： hydrogen-induced cracking and anodic dissolution. In hydrogen-induced cracking, the cathodic process is a hydrogen evolution reaction, in which hydrogen entering the metal causes cracking. An example is the SCC of ultra-high strength steel in water. In anodic dissolution, the cathodic process is an oxygen uptake reaction and not related to hydrogen. Stress corrosion is from anodic dissolution. Examples include brass in ammonia solution or titanium in methanol solution. It should be noted that in the process of anodic dissolution a hydrogen evolution reaction still takes place at the cathode, but it remains less than the critical value required for hydrogen-induced cracking. This form of SCC should still be considered as anodic dissolution. An example of this is seen when austenitic stainless steel is stress corroded in hot salt solution. The amount of hydrogen entering the metal is too low to cause hydrogen-induced cracking, so it instead promotes SCC via anodic dissolution.
It has been proposed that the mechanisms of anodic-dissolution-based SCC can be further subdivided into the following theories and models： 1 the slip dissolution mechanism or membrane rupture theory 2 the preferred dissolution mechanism, including the intergranular preferential dissolution model and tunnel corrosion model 3 the medium-induced cleavage mechanism, and 4 the theory of corrosion-induced plastic deformation leading to SCC cracking.
There is not yet any consensus on the mechanisms of hydrogen-induced cracking. The common point of various theories is that hydrogen atoms are accumulated in high stress regions by stress-induced diffusion, and the material is broken when the hydrogen concentration reaches a critical value. Theories and models on hydrogen enrichment include： 1 hydrogen pressure theory 2 adsorption hydrogen reducing surface energy theory 3 weak bond theory, and 4 hydrogen promoting local plastic deformation theory.
For more than two decades, little progress has been made in the study of stress corrosion mechanisms. This is attributable to the lack of observation and research on mechanical-chemical behavior at crack tips on the micro and nano scales. However, with the more recent development of micro-area electrochemical testing technology, understanding of stress corrosion is projected to advance again. Micro-area electrochemical testing can be used to compare the electrochemical reactivity of the sample surface under the presence or absence of stress, and the local electrochemical reaction characteristics at different positions of the crack tip can also be obtained. These micro-area measurement techniques include scanning vibration reference electrode technology SVET, local electrochemical impedance spectroscopy LEIS, scanning Kelvin probe technology SKP, and capillary microelectrode technology. Such techniques allow for unprecedented insight into the processes of stress corrosion initiation and development at the atomic level.This correlates to an improved understanding of local corrosion processes in the aqueous solution at the crack tip, including the behaviors of ions, passivation film, sediments and corrosion products. Combined with finite element analysis and other numerical simulation methods, we are better equipped than ever to analyze the effects of mechanical and electromechanical factors on the mechanisms of the SCC process.
Increasingly advanced morphological observation methods have also been used in crack tip behavior analysis, such as focused ion-beam tomography FIB and X-ray tomography. Through advanced, three-dimensional in situ structural analysis, information regarding the initiation of and changes to the crack tip structure can be further obtained, providing further insight to the evolution process and mechanisms of SCC. With recent technological advancements, even spatial radiotracer methods combined with electrochemical methods are possible.
Research on SCC in China remains in sync with international progress. The primary body of research in China focuses on the influence of environmental factors, loading conditions, and heat treatment methods on the SCC process. Focus can remain on problems with practical application, such as those seen with pipeline steel, nickel-based alloys in nuclear plants, and the SCC of steel for pressure vessels. Various advanced research and analysis methods are being gradually applied in said research. However, there remains a lack of distinctive research direction and few distinguished fields of study, which, to some extent, limits the originality and innovation of results in the study of SCC and crack tip behavior in China.
Due to the complexity of the stress corrosion process, it is difficult to establish a unified stress corrosion model and associated mechanisms explaining the SCC phenomenon. Theoretical research is limited in application. Therefore, greater attention should be devoted to solving issues as they materialize in practice. Through the study of specific stress corrosion failure cases under actual service conditions, simulations, and acceleration tests conducted in laboratory settings, the SCC process of a certain system can be studied in depth, and a suitable stress corrosion model established to effectively analyze and explain it. By finding the laboratory accelerated test conditions that can reproduce the actual stress corrosion process, an accurate assessment of stress corrosion life and targeted protection measures can be achieved. This has been the foremost strategy for stress corrosion research in recent years.
The petroleum industry has so far used industrial systems with the largest variety of metal materials, the most complex corrosive media, and a large variety of complex loads, resulting in a large number of stress corrosion accidents. Petroleum is a flammable, liquid, organic mineral that is found in the porous media of underground rock and consists of various hydrocarbons and their derivatives. Natural gas is a flammable gas that also exists in porous underground rock and is similarly composed of hydrocarbons and their derivatives. The oil industry centers on exploration, drilling, development, oil recovery, gathering, refining and storage. Industrial processes are divided into two major sections： oil exploration and mining upstream and petrochemical refinement downstream. Every aspect of the oil industry is closely linked to metallic materials, especially various steels, exposed to extremely harsh environments and various loads of stress.
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